Star-based navigation Sailors and caravans used nakshatras (constellations). Seasonal star positions helped them travel safely when landmarks vanished in the dark.
How it was used Sailors tracked stars at dusk. The appearance of stars like Rohini signalled sailing seasons. Navigators read the sky like a map from childhood.
Pic: Deep Root History
How it was used A red cloth on a mango tree meant turn right; a carved arrow on a neem tree showed the distance to water. Such signs were passed down orally.
Pic: Treehugger
Marut Jnana (wind knowledge) Coastal communities read winds, waves, tides, and bird flight to decide when to sail. They learned by observing the sea across generations.
How it was used The southwest monsoon took ships west; northeast winds brought them home. Traders timed voyages with these winds for centuries, without maps.
Pic: Library of Congress
Bhugol Shastra Texts like Brihat Samhita and Skanda Purana mapped routes using rivers, hills, caves, and temples. Distances were given in verses or numbers.
Pic: Library of Congress
How it was used Pilgrims memorised chants as maps: “Beyond the confluence, past twin banyans, walk east to the hill.” These oral maps guided long journeys.
Pic: National Maritime Foundation